SUB-SAHARA AFRICAN JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION RESEARCH (SJCER)
VOL 21 (8) SEPTEMBER, 2021 ISSN: 2185–8555
Published by:
Sub-Sahara African Academic Research Publications,
Centre for African Development Studies, University of Ibadan,
P. O. Box 10108, U. I. Post Office. Ibadan Oyo State, Nigeria, West-Africa.
Email: ssaapublications@gmail.com
PAPERS:
ACADEMIC INFLUENCE OF EXTRA-MURAL LESSONS ON PRIMARY SCHOOLS PUPILS
BEATRICE CHINONSO MADUAGWU1, BABANJIGA NJIGA EMMANUEL1 AND VICTOR NDUBUISI ORDUA2
1Department of Education, Faculty of Education, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. 2Department of Educational Psychology, G&C, School of Education, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Onelga, Rivers State, Nigeria
Abstract
This study investigated the academic influence of extra-mural lessons on primary schools pupils. Five objectives guided this study. Descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. With a population of 5100 pupils, simple random sampling technique was used to select the sample for this study. Four hundred and seventy pupils (males = 246, females = 224) within primary 4 and 5 from ten private primary schools within Maiduguri Metropolis were employed for data collection. Questionnaire designed by the researchers was utilized to obtain information on academic influence of extramural lessons on pupils. Findings from the study established that extramural lessons are not compulsory in some private schools and many pupils prefer extramural lessons to be conducted immediately after school hours when compared to other times. Also, high academic influence of extramural lessons on pupils was established while gender did not have any impact on this influence on pupils. However, it was recommended that the Nigerian government, through the Ministry of Education, should probe into the excesses of some private schools in order to check them.
Keywords: Extramural Lessons, Learning, Academic Influence, Pupils, Education,
EFFECTS OF BRAINSTORMING, JUST-IN-TIME AND DEMONSTRATION TEACHING TECHNIQUES ON STUDENTS’ COGNITIVE ACHIEVEMENT AND RETENTION IN DIGITAL ELECTONICS IN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN NORTH-WEST NIGERIA
SAIDU HADIZA ARAH; RAYMOND EMANUEL; AND UMAR IBRAHIM YAKUBU
Department of Industrial and Technology Education, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria.
Abstract
The study identified the effects of brainstorming, Just-in-Time and demonstration teaching techniques on students’ cognitive achievement and retention in Digital Electronic in Colleges of Education in North-West Nigeria. Two research questions were raised and answered as well as two hypotheses were formulated and test at 0.05 level of significant. The study adopted pretest–posttest non-equivalent control group design of quasi-experimental study. The study was conducted in North-West, Nigeria. The population of this study comprised of the entire 142 Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) III electrical/electronic students in all the Colleges of Education in the study area offering technical education. Due to the manageable size of the population of the study, there was no sampling of subjects. The instruments used for data collection include: Digital Electronics Cognitive Achievement and Retention Tests (DECART). The instrument was subjected to face and content validation by three experts. The reliability co-efficient of the instrument was determined as .78 using Kuder-Richardson 20 (K-R 20). The collection of data for the study was achieved through physical administration of the instrument. The study employed the use of descriptive using mean and inferential statistics using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to analyze the data. The study found out that, brainstorming teaching technique had positive effect on the cognitive achievement and retention of students in digital electronics. The study recommended among others that, digital electronics lecturers should adopt the use of brainstorming teaching technique to enhance students’ cognitive achievement and retention.
Keywords: Brainstorming, Just-in-Time, Demonstration Cognitive Achievement and Retention
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND MANAGEMENT OF FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES, NIGERIA
OSUOBENI EKOI AKPONIMISINGHA; YAKUBU, SANI Ph.D; AND AGNES AJIBADE IYABO
Faculty of Education, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Department of Educational Management
Abstract
The study assessed the relationship between “Legal Framework and the Management of Federal Universities in North Central States, Nigeria. The study was guided by two objectives with research questions hypotheses. The research design employed in this study was the cross-sectional survey research design. The population of the study consisted of 373. The sample size of the study consisted of 68 respondents and it was selected using the multi-stage and simple random sampling techniques respectively. The researcher developed a questionnaire for data collection from the respondents. The questionnaire was tagged “Questionnaire on legal framework and the management of federal universities in North Central States, Nigeria” (QLFMFUNCSN). The instrument used for data collection was duly validated and it produced 0.66 as logical validity index. The instrument was pilot tested on 10 HODs and the coefficient of internal consistency of 0.88 was obtained. Descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation were used to answer all the research questions while Pearson’s product moment correlation used to test all the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings of the study indicated that The findings of the study showed that there is a significant relationship between enabling laws, appointment and dismissal of academic staff in the management of federal universities in North Central States, Nigeria and there is a significant relationship between enabling laws and monitoring and evaluation of federal universities in North Central States, Nigeria. The study recommended among others that Every university has enabling laws that guide the appointment and dismissal of academic staff in the management of federal universities, the study recommended that the National University Commission should sanctioned any university that fail deploy such existing laws when appointing and removing academic staff to enhance fairness and equity in handling of staff issues.
Keywords: Legal Framework, Management, Enabling Laws, Appointment and Dismissal, Monitoring and Evaluation.
EFFECT OF SOCIO-CULTURAL DETERMINANTS OF ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN JALINGO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF TARABA STATE, NIGERIA
*MELAIYE, O. RUFUS (PhD); **IORSHAER, M.J.; **CEPHAS, Z.K.; **BULBA, I.B.; ***CHUBOH, VICTOR; ****SYLIVANUS, IBRAHIM; & *****GALADIMA, ANTHONY I.
*Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Taraba State University. **Peacock College of Education, Jalingo ***Agric.Education Dept., College of Education, Zing ****Finance Dept. Ardo kola LGA,Taraba State *****Taraba State Teaching Service Board, Jalingo
Abstract
The study investigates the socio-cultural determinants of adolescent pregnancy in Jalingo metropolis, Jalingo Local Government Area of Taraba State, Nigeria. The study adopted the simple percentage survey research design involving 40 young girls of ages 14 – 20, through a simple sampling technique. Structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. The research questions were divided into two sections; section A contained questions on the personal data of the respondents and section B contain the subject of the study. Simple percentage rate was used to analysed the data collected. The result revealed that the age at which teenagers engaged in sexual intercourse is too early, socio-economic background, early manage and traditional gender role, peer group pressure, lack of sex education are the major determinants of why teenagers pregnancy is prevalence these days. And that incomplete education, isolation and rejection by both parents and friend, mothers health risk during birth and financial difficulties are some of effects of teenage pregnancy. Based on the findings, recommendation were made that both the Federal and State governments should contribute to reduce the teenage pregnancy by enforcing the custing child Right Acts of 2003, by providing funding for comprehensive education for the girl child. The girl child should be given sex education on its consequences on their lives, parents should try to meet the needs of their teenage children.
Keywords: Adolescent Pregnancy, Socio-cultural, Academic achievement
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AMONG UNDERGRADUATE ENGLISH EDUCATION AND SCIENCE EDUCATION STUDENTS IN SELECTED G.S.T COURSES IN F.C.E YOLA
HAFSATU NUHU; AND HARUNA DANJUMA
Department of General Studies, Federal College of Education, Yola
Abstract
This paper is aimed at discovering the gap or differences between the performance of English Education and Science Education in one selected G.S.T course. The work was carried out in Adamawa state, Yola Northeast. The school is Federal College of Education, Yola Degree Programme Affiliated to University of Maiduguri. The results were analyzed using the results of Science Education and English Education performance from 2014 to 2017. Only on some selected GST courses. The summary of the results has shown that there are significant difference in performance or achievement of English education students and science education students in GST course. Based on the findings, it was recommended that much attention should be given to science education students.
THE ROLES OF REFERENCE AND INFORMATION SERVICES IN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
MARGARET A AMAO
Abu Ali Library, ASCOE Azare
Abstract
The provision of Reference and information services is an important function of a library. It is one of the basic services provided in library and information centers. The purpose of this service is to meet the information needs of its diverse users by providing personal assistance to users in need of information. This paper looks at the concept of reference and information service, reference and information sources which include dictionary, encyclopedia, yearbook etc. It also discusses the forms of reference services which include basic ones, those performed usually and sometimes in library, the role of reference services to users and the challenges hindering effective library services which include lack of adequate resources, lack of qualified and experience staff, personal attitude of librarians etc.
Keywords: Reference, Information, Services, Sources, Library
OVERVIEW OF GENDER SEGREGATION IN THE ACADEMIA
*BLESSED GARBA, *QUEENSLEY A. UTOMI AND **QRISTEE M. MUYIWA
*Dept. of Bus. Adm. & Mgt College of Bus & Mgt Std. Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna. **Dept of Lib. and info. Sci, College of Adm. Std and Social Sci. Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.
ABSTRACT
The academia has been known as an institution that shows support for the principles of democracy, encourage social movements and social justice, but it has failed to address the issues of gender equity and equality hence making their mode of governance a male dominated and patriarchal. In spite of the advances which women have made in many areas of public life in the past two decades, they are still a long way from participating on the same footing in academia as men. The global picture is one of men outnumbering women in research and publication. This paper has discussed gender equality which indicates that people are free to make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes and that their various contributions and needs are valued equally, Emphasis is on the fact that gender equity is a mechanism through which gender equality may be achieved. A consideration of both gender equity and gender equality is integral to good development practice and the goal of a development practitioner should be equity for equality.
Key Points: Academia, Equity, Equality, Gender, Segregation
AN OVERVIEW OF THE CHALLENGES OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
ILIYA SIMON PUKUMA
Department of Business Administration and Management Studies, Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola, Numan Campus
ABSTRACT
Entrepreneurship is unique to the development of Economic Parameter. Entrepreneurs however, cannot work in isolation; they need the right environment to thrive. The judicial system, the educational system, the financial system and general government policies should be such that encourage and promote entrepreneurship. Basic infrastructures such as power, water, and transport systems are necessary to boost entrepreneurship. This paper looks at the challenges facing entrepreneurship in Nigeria and recommend solutions to creating a better entrepreneurial society.
Keywords: Overview of Entrepreneurship Education, Challenges Problems, Prospect Recommendations and Evaluation in Nigeria.
MOTIVATING TECHNOLOGY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (TVE) TEACHERS FOR QUALITY WORK IN A PANDEMIC ERA
EZE OGOCHUKWU MARYANN AND EZE JOAN NNEAMAKA (Ph.D.)
Department of Agricultural Education, Federal College of Education (Technical) Asaba
Abstract
This paper motivating technology and vocational education (TVE) teachers for quality work in a pandemic era, discussed who a teacher is, the meaning of Technology and Vocational Education (TVE), achieving quality work through teachers’ motivation in this pandemic era. Suggestions on ways of improving adequate teacher motivation were made to include: effective policy implementation, adequate funding, and promoting teacher’s constant in-service training and retraining of teachers and others. Some of the challenges teachers have faced during the pandemic era ranged from a reduction in high-quality interaction with students to a lack of support and challenges with technology mostly network issues when using online gadgets.
Keywords: Motivating, technology, vocational teachers, pandemic era
THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION.
KABIRU ADAMU UMAR
A.D. Rufa’i College of Education, Legal and General Studies, Misau, Bauchi State.
Abstract
The advancement in communication cycle has led to the development of Islamic education. The Islamiyyah schools, mosque and other traditional centers of acquiring Islamic education are no longer the only avenue for learning Islamic education. The mass media serves as another instrument for learning Islamic teachings and practices. The role of media in the development of Islamic education has been imperative. It has played an integral part in influencing the minds as well as imparting Islamic knowledge to the muslims and non Muslims as well. The methodology adopted in carrying out the research is library based research, in which books and journals were studied and reviewed to find out the role of mass media in the development of Islamic education. The paper found that mass media through its devices of reaching large audience at once contribute immensely in the development of Islamic education globally. The paper finally recommends that, there is need for adequate arrangements for using the mass media, scholars, teachers of Islamic education must learn some general principle of using the media around them.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE INFLUENCES OF MASS MEDIA UPON EDUCATION
KABIRU IDRIS MUHAMMAD
Kano State Polytechnic, School of General Studies, Department of Mass Communication
Abstract
The explosive changes at the global level from the last century, either of an economic nature or at the information level have created the proper field for mass-media to develop, the emergence of internet and implicitly the massive changes at the level of the society or individual. The involvements of the individuals in the modifications that take place imply a change in the traditional education and the shift to a permanent education which can integrate the formal, informal and non-formal education. Mass-media (media of mass communication) represents the totality of mass information (radio, television, press, internet etc.). Even though mass media had information as a principal function, and especially as the society got more computerized, significant changes in the behavioral manifestations have appeared in the individual experiences regarding the gain of knowledge, the same influences of mass-media refused by some can be accepted with ease by others. If the consumer has the control upon the information, the overwhelming impact of media does not affect him/her in a negative way.
Keywords: Media, Communication, Mass, Education, Influence, Social.
SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (SFG) AS A PREFERRED METHOD FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR IN NIGERIA.
MOHAMMED ABUBAKAR
Department of General Studies, the Federal Polytechnic Bali, Taraba State
ABSTRACT
English language teaching in Nigeria has developed within the frame-work of theory and practice which have been applied in countries where English is taught as a second language. As a matter of fact, English is a second language, an official language, a lingua-franca, and the medium of instruction in Nigeria. It is obvious that good education in Nigerian context depends on English which is taught not as first language but as second language. Therefore, teaching grammar to second language learners cannot be avoided. It is left for the teacher to select the methodology suitable for effective delivery. This paper will discuss the usefulness of systemic functional grammar (SFG) as a preferred method for teaching communicative skills in second language learners’ (L2) classroom.
Keywords: language, grammar, SFG, L2.
INCIDENCE OF HOOKWORM INFECTION AMONG SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN OKO, ORUMBA NORTH LGA, ANAMBRA STATE.
OKECHUKWU CHIKELUBA M.; & EZEH MARYCYNTHIA C.
Federal Polytechnic Oko
Abstract
This project work investigated the incidence of hookworm infection among selected primary school children in Oko, Orumba North L.G.A of Anambra State. The project was undertaken between the months of June to July, 2021. A total of 9 fecal samples were randomly collected from 2 different primary schools in Oko. The fecal sample were processed and analyzed. Out of 9 faecal samples examined 4 (44.4%) were found positive. The incidence of hookworm was mainly due to non adherence to personal hygiene, working on bare foot among the school children. Occasional deworming of school children as an effective means of control, is recommended.
Keywords: Incidence, Hookworm, Infection, Primary School, Children.
PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC REALITIES: THE VOCATIONAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION (VTE) EXPERIENCE IN CONTEMPORARY NIGERIA
*ENUMA, CHUKWUMAFIDELIS; **MOMODU, BENEDICTA EHI; & ***IFEMENI ANEKE LEBUSTINE
*Department of Electrical Electronics, Federal College of Education (Tech), Asaba. **Department of Educational Foundations, Federal College of Education (Tech), Asaba. ***Department of Educational Psychology, Federal College of Education (Tech), Asaba
Abstract
Since the corona virus has made life unbearable for man, reason suggested to him that the COVID-19 virus need to be tackled pragmatically. A philosophical approach to our object of experience is to provide direction, guidance and meaning to whatever we do as an individual and a people. It is obvious that the socio-economic situation in the Nigerian revealed that there is need to rethink about our education system. This is because we believe that education can make the required difference to our society. However, the present circumstances revealed that we still do not know what we want education to do for us as a country. kk, the emphasis on theoretical epistemology rather than both theoretical and technical epistemology is a pointer to the fact that education is more of consumption rather than an investment. It is believed that as a country experiencing socio-economic hard times we ought to face the realities that confront us in a pragmatic way by examining every alternative for the betterment of the individual it is on this note these authors attempt to examine the place of Vocational Technical Education (VTE) as a necessary condition for tackling the socio-economic realities confronting the Nigeria state. In attempt to do this, these authors employ the conceptual analytic approach in examining the concepts, questions and issues raised in this paper. The importance of this paper is to create in the learner that every reality has its own approach. The more we pragmatically approach a given situation the better; rethinking VTE as a necessary condition would help to create this realization in the learner.
Keywords: Pragmatic Approach, Socio-Economic Realities, Vocational Technical Education, Contemporary Nigeria
IMPACT OF MODERN TECHNOLOGIES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING FOR IMPROVE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC MUBI
HABU JINGI UMAR; HALILU HAMMAN; & NWADIUKO OKIKE AZU (Mrs.)
Department of Office Technology and Management Federal Polytechnic, Mubi Adamawa State
ABSTRACT
This research Impact of Modern Technologies in Teaching and Learning for Improve Academic Achievement In Federal Polytechnic Mubi”The objectives of the study includes: to determine the role of Office Technologies in Learning OTM programme, to identify the type of Office Technologies in learning OTM Programme, to identify the problems OTM students face while undergoing the learning process and to proffer solutions to the identified problems. Data for this research were collected using primary and secondary sources. The researcher used simple mean statistical tool and standard deviation in analyzing the data. The findings of the study reveals that when modern technologies are adequately supplied in the department it will make teaching and learning OTM programme very much effective and efficient. It was concluded that the problems of learning OTM programme are faced by in adequate supply of office technologies, poor funding, erratic power supply and poor network services. Therefore, it was recommended by the researcher That the government under the Polytechnic authorities should ensure adequate funding of the OTM department, adequate supply of relevant office technologies for teaching and learning exercise so also the department should be connected with World Wide Web to improve the internet connectivity which will go a long way in the improvement of teaching and learning of the OTM programme in the Federal Polytechnic, Mubi. Adamawa State Nigeria.
Keywords: Modern Technologies, Teaching, Learning and Academic achievement
THE PLACE OF PIDGIN IN NIGERIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM
UMEOBI FREDRICK C.
Abstract
The Nigerian pidgin is a hybrid language with unique characteristics. It is not complex; it is easy to learn and understand and also contains elements of our indigenous languages. Moreso, it is not prone to conflict as is the case with our other indigenous languages. The Nigerian pigin is advantageous to be viable as a language of instruction in our educational system and should be appreciated, encouraged and nurtured as it is obvious that it is a perfect candidate for the position of a national language and the language of instruction in schools.
ASSESSMENT OF CHALLENGES OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN BUSINESS EDUCATION IN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH SOUTH NIGERIA
JOHN O. NWAEKETE; & MRS. AUGUSTINA CHIEDU
Federal College of Education Technical Asaba
Abstract
The study examined new technologies and its challenges in the delivery of business education programme of Colleges of Education in South South Nigeria. Civilization brought new technologies in education that could match the global skills, competitiveness in the labour market, thereby bridging the digital divide. Two research questions guided the study. descriptive survey design was adopted. The population comprised of 362 business educators.simple ramdom sampling technique was used to select A structured questionnaire with 20 items was used for data collections. The instrument was validated by two lecturers in business education. The reliability of the instrument yielded co-efficient index of 0.83. Mean and standard deviation were used to analyze the research questions. Findings revealed that inadequate funding, poor infrastructure and insufficient skilled manpower constitute major challenges in utilizing new technologies in Colleges of Education in South South Nigeria. The findings also reveals that many Colleges of Education in South South Nigeria pay lip-service to technological know-how in their school thereby depriving the students of the accrued benefits of technologies. It was recommended that new technologies such as computers, over-head projectors, video conferencing, internet connectivity and adequate power supply for the programme.
Keywords: connectivity, business education, technology, development.
EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN NIGERIA; LESSONS FROM HISTORY AND THE WAY FORWARD.
INUWA ALIYU BOBO; UMAR IBRAHIM BABA; & MOHAMMED CHIROMA
Department of History, School of Arts and Social Sciences, A. D. Rufa’i College of Education, Legal, And General Studies, Misau, Bauchi State
ABSTRACT
As schools are severely disrupted by COVID-19 pandemic nationwide, the process of planning and practice of education should be adjusted to conform with the new situation. Now that schools are re-opening for the continuation of teaching and learning under the new circumstance, there is need to make adequate provisions in order to adjust to a more suitable practice. The paper intended to study and analyse similar situations in the past and the actions taken to make things better for the continuation of teaching and learning under such unprecedented condition. The paper explains the meaning and nature of pandemic and specifically looked into COVID-19 pandemic. It’s nature and how it affects our education system. Some major pandemics that occurred around the world were also studied and analysed. The paper recommends that government and stakeholders should adopt new methods and techniques in tackling the educational crisis as designed by the concerned authorities. Also the guidance and counseling services should be accelerated in schools and colleges in order to comfort both the teachers and learners under the new situation.
Keywords: Education, Pandemic, COVID-19, History, Challenges
EFFECTS OF MULTIMEDIA PACKAGES ON JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN BASIC SCIENCE IN ABUJA FCT
DAHUNSI T. O. Ph.D
Primary Education Department, FCT College of Education Zuba – Abuja
ABSTRACT
This paper looked to examine the Effects of Multimedia Packages on Junior Secondary School Students’ Achievement in Basic Science in Abuja, FCT. Multimedia is a method of conveying information which considers several methods of communication. Effects of multimedia packages on students achievement is very important. This work was guided by two hypothesis. The purposive sampling technique was used to select two comparable Junior Secondary Schools with identical pretest mean score and a stratified random sampling techniques to select 5 students from each school, totaling 60 students and 5 basic science teachers from the sampled school. Data were analyzed using average mean score. It was revealed that a significant number of respondents strongly agreed that the use of multimedia packages in the teaching and learning improves students’ academic achievement in basic science. Combination of various digital media types that integrates multisensory interactive presentations to convene message to the learners gives students retentive memory to recall learning concepts.
Keywords: Multimedia, Achievement, Effect and Basic Science
THE EFFECT OF WAGES/SALARY ADMINISTRATION ON ACADEMIC STAFF PERFORMANCE IN TARABA STATE UNIVERSITY.
UMARU MUSA
Department of Business Administration and Management, School of General Studies and Management Technology, Federal Polytechnic Bali, P.M.B. 05 Bali, Taraba State
ABSTRACT
The current research study was carried out to examine the Effect of Wages/Salary Administration on Academic Staff Performance in Taraba State University. In this study, a survey research design was adopted. The population for the purpose of this study consists of all the academic staff in the Taraba state university Jalingo. Hence primary method of data collection were used where a sample of 29 close ended questionnaires were prepared and administered to the respondent in the case study that were selected using the Yaro Yamani Sampling method. For the purpose of analysis, the study uses simple percentages in form of tables to analyses respondent information while chi-square (X2) technique were used to test and provides answers to the three hypothesis formulated based on the research questions. However, evidence from chi-square (X2) test results clearly indicates that: The implementation of minimum wage on the salary structure of academic staff will improves their performances in Taraba State University Jalingo. The Findings Equally Reveals That, Bonuses and other incentives as a motivational tools does play a significant role in improving academic staff performance in Taraba State University Jalingo at ( P<0.05) significance level. The study conclude that, there is significant relationship between wages/salaries and motivational tools used in improving staff performance in Nigerian workplace. Base on the findings the study recommend that Wages/salaries scale and schedule in line with identified factors should be developed for adequate compensation.
Keywords: Wages, Administration, minimum wage, salary scale.